Modernising Medical Careers (MMC) aims to ensure that more patients are treated by fully trained
doctors, rather than doctors in training. The new career structure and training programmes will give
doctors a clear career path where advancement is attained through the acquisition of set
competences rather than time spent in a particular role. It will improve patient safety by ensuring
junior doctors in their early years of training are well supervised and assessed against explicit
standards set out in curricula for each specialty.
Transitional arrangements from the current system to the new system are being finalised. The new
training programmes will start from August 2007. The Postgraduate Medical Education and
Training Board (PMETB) is considering the new specialty curricula, all of which have now been
submitted and many of which are already approved. They have indicated that the process will be
completed by early 2007. Also being finalised are:
■ the proposed number of posts available for recruitment into specialty and general
practice training. Current indications are that 2007 will provide an enormous opportunity for
doctors to compete for entry into training – probably the best ever.
■ new recruitment arrangements supported by an electronic application portal (MTAS)
which will be far more efficient for applicants and for the service, resulting in a transparent
and cost-effective process.
MMC is perhaps the most fundamental change to medical training since the NHS came into being,
with major implications for how clinical services are delivered. Doctors will be trained to explicit
national standards determined by a new statutory body, the Postgraduate Medical Education and
Training Board (PMETB). Patient services will be delivered by more fully-trained doctors which will
improve patient safety and care; and patients, junior doctors and employers will understand what
they can expect and what is expected of them. The time is right, preparation is in the final stages
and arrangements will be ready for the planned launch of the new specialty training programmes
from August 2007.
Specialist and GP training
programmes
(Run-through training)
Medical school – 4-6 years
Career
posts
F1
F2
UK MMC Career Framework
Senior Medical AAppppooiinnttmmeennttss
Continuing Professional Development
Fixed term
specialist
training
(FTSTA)
Arrows indicate competitive entry
CCT route
Specialist and GP Registers Article 14/11 routeExisting
Training &
Non-training
Posts
Some specialities will have common training to start with. You will be able to apply for the following:
•
Acute Care Common Stem (ACCS)•
Anaesthesia•
Basic Neurosciences Training (BNT)•
Chemical Pathology•
General Practice•
Histopathology•
Medical Microbiology•
Medicine in General•
O&G•
Ophthalmology•
Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (OMFS)•
Paediatrics•
Psychiatry•
Public Health•
Radiology•
Surgery in General•
Otolaryngology (ENT)MMC – what will it mean for:
Medical students
In October, a new online application system for the Foundation Programme was launched. It allows
you to submit a single electronic application to any foundation school and programme in the UK.
The deadline for applications is 5 December 2006 and no applications will be processed after that
date.
Halfway through your F2 year, you will apply for a specialty/GP training programme or a fixed term
specialty training appointment. Having undertaken placements in a number of specialties during
foundation training, you must make a choice, based on your preferences and aptitudes, on what
geography and general specialty grouping you want to apply for. Careers advice will be available
through your foundation school. In Oxford their will be MedicCareers workshops held regularly in
each postgraduate centre (see below).
Foundation doctors (F2)
Foundation doctors will be able to apply for a run-through specialty or GP training programme
during their F2 year.
Applicants can apply for:
■ one specialty in four locations; or
■ four specialties in one location.
■Or two specialties in two locations
You will only be able to apply at the first year level of training in any specialty (ST1). Carefully read
the person specifications for ST1 and consider what direction you want your career to take.
Careers advice will be available to you through your clinical tutor or educational supervisor, and
you will have an opportunity to attend a MedicCareers workshop in your local postgraduate centre.
This 4 hour workshop takes you through the necessary steps to choose the best specialty for you
and gives you information about issues you need to be aware of when making your application. It
also provides a comprehensive workbook for future reference. If you have not been notified about
this workshop, contact your postgraduate centre manager.
Specialty tutors will also continue to be available to answer questions about individual specialties.
You can find their contact details under each specialty heading on the Oxford Deanery CDU
website (
www.oxforddeanerycdu.org.uk ) You should think widely and flexibly about your careeroptions – consider a Plan A, B and C!
You will need to provide evidence that you have the competences set out in the Foundation
Programme curriculum, and it is likely that you will be asked to produce your portfolio during the
selection process to provide the evidence of any statements you made on the application form
about your competencies and also anything you said you have done to demonstrate an interest or
commitment to your chosen specialty. (See Portfolio below)
If you are an F2 doctor and are thinking about going to work abroad or take time out after you
complete your foundation training, you might wish to consider whether this is the best time to do
so. Since there should be many opportunities available for entry into specialty/general practice
training in 2007 (the transition year) you are likely to have the best chance of competing for a
national training number (NTN). You might want to apply for an NTN in 2007, start your specialty
training and then, in discussion with your training programme director, consider whether time out of
your training programme is something you want to pursue. Importantly, you will not be able to defer
the start of your training programme for the purpose of going abroad if you gain a place on a
programme starting in 2007.
Senior House Officers (SHOs)
Specialist Training
If you want to get into a specialty/GP training programme, you will need to apply in January 2007. It
is anticipated that there will be a significant number of entry points across a range of specialities
and locations.
Like foundation doctors, you can apply for one specialty in four locations; four specialties in one
location or two specialties in two locations.
The person specifications are now available on the MMC websites. You should consider at what
level you are eligible to apply for a specialty so look carefully at the different person specifications
for each level. Bear in mind that you will need to provide evidence of competences as indicated in
the appropriate person specification. You can find details of what is considered appropriate
evidence on the Royal College websites and you are likely to have to demonstrate this evidence in
your portfolio.
■ Entry to the SHO grade will end in July 2007. For SHOs who have employment
contracts extending beyond that date, contracts will be honoured, if the SHO so wishes.
However, if you are in this position, you are advised to apply for entry into specialty training
for 2007 since, during this transition year, there will be many more opportunities available
than at any other time. You do not have to resign your SHO contract if you decide to apply,
only if you are successful and decide to accept an offer into specialty training;
■ requests at short notice for time off for interviews should be honoured during the
recruitment period.
Fixed Term Specialist Training Appointments ( FTSTAs)
These are:
·
Educationally approved posts for SHOs with <3 years exerience·
Only available in ST1 and ST2 posts ( except ST3 in paeds or psych)·
Apply for 1 year only·
Individuals can only apply for up to 2 yrs as a FTSTA altogether·
When the FTSTA is completed you can:o
Apply for ST2/3o
Apply for a career gradeo
Consider an alternative training programme·
Doctors in this grade will also be known as StRs ( specialty registrars)Career Grade
SHOs with more than 3 years experience who are not successful in obtaining a training post can
apply in the normal way to Acute Trusts for career grade posts. These are not educationally
approved posts.
Specialist Registrars (SpRs
)As a Specialist Registrar, you can continue your training as it is currently structured. However, you
might consider looking at your new curriculum (available from the relevant royal college website)
and discussing whether it would be advantageous for you to make the move to the new curriculum
with your training programme director.
■ Entry to the SpR grade will end in January 2007, but those in the grade will be able to
continue until they have finished their programme (subject to their progress); or apply to
switch to the new programme.
General Practitioner trainees
If you would like to apply for general practice, you will be able to apply for the full programme using
the new curriculum, or during the transition year (2007), it is likely that you will be able to apply at
the level of ST2 or ST3, using the existing curriculum.
The new programme for GP training (beginning at ST1 in 2007) will be based on the new
curriculum recently approved by PMETB and will be assessed by the new MRCGP examination.
Assessment for CCT – Transition Arrangements
From August 2007 it is proposed that there will be a single new assessment process for doctors
wishing to obtain a CCT (Certificate of Completion of Training) in general practice. This new
assessment will also be an essential requirement for entry to the GMC Generalist Register and
Membership of the Royal College of General Practitioners (MRCGP).
Details of this can be found on the RCGP website –
www.rcgp.org.uk.The exam will consist of three elements:
■ a knowledge test;
■ a clinical skills assessment which will include observed consultations using patient
simulators(OSCE)
■ work-based assessment carried out during the training placement.
If you are on a GP Vocational Training Scheme (VTS) you will be able continue your training as it is
currently structured. Entry to Vocational Training Schemes (VTS) will close and the “Do-it-yourself”
programmes will no longer be available. After the transition year, doctors will enter into the new
programme using the new curriculum.
To prepare for the changes:
·
familiarise yourself with the main learning requirements of the new programme whichare best presented in the first curriculum statement “Being a GP” available at the
RCGP website as above; Also look at the national GP recruitment website or MMC site
and download the person specification and application details
(www.gprecruitment.org.uk)
·
seek advice if need be from local GP trainers in your medical school, foundationschool and GP training programme. Every current GP VTS scheme in the Oxford
Deanery has a Course Organiser who will be the new Programme Director for general
practice based in each postgraduate centre. They will be well placed to advise you and
you can ask your postgraduate centre manager for contact details.
Staff and Associate Specialist (SAS) doctors
As an SAS doctor, you will be eligible to apply for entry to specialty training programmes and fixed
term specialist training programmes ( FTSAs) like all other applicants, provided you match the
requirements laid out in the relevant person specifications.
You will need to provide evidence that you have acquired the required competences. You can find
details of what is considered appropriate evidence on the medical royal college websites and this
will need to be part of your portfolio which you will need to produce during the selection process.
Research trainees
The Academic Subcommittee of the Modernising Medical Careers and UK Clinical Research
Collaboration aims to improve the academic career prospects for medically and dentally qualified
researchers and educationalists in the United Kingdom. The pocket guide for new academic
training pathways can be downloaded from the MMC website (see below).
For the transitional year (2007), research will continue to be a feature of the person specifications
for all levels. This is to ensure that if you are a current SHO who has made the career choice to
undertake research, you are not disadvantaged.
If you are in the middle of a research degree but meet the entry requirements for a specialty, you
are eligible to apply for a national training number (NTN) now and ask for a deferred start date.
Deferrals will be for up to 3 years from the time you registered for your degree.
There are research opportunities at:
■ foundation level through one- and two-year integrated academic programmes;
■ specialty level through the Academic Clinical Fellowship and Clinical Lecturer
programmes.
See the www.nccrcd.nhs.uk for more information about these opportunities.
Doctors in specialty training can also take ‘time out’ to undertake research, but this should be in
order to pursue a formal research qualification (e.g. MD or PhD). If you are considering an
academic research career, you should seek advice from your postgraduate dean.
Less than full time trainees
The introduction of MMC will not interfere with current arrangements for less than full time training
in any way. Indeed, it may be that the duration of time a flexible trainee will spend in training will
shorten overall as the full impact of the new competence based curricula is realised.
If you need to work less than full time and have good reasons to do so, you will need to have a
discussion with your postgraduate dean or his representative to ensure that you are eligible.
Decisions will be made on a case by case basis, but acceptable reasons include: disability or illhealth;
caring for an ill/disabled partner, relative or other dependent; or childcare. Please note that
doctors must undertake training on at least a half-time basis in order to comply with the
requirements of the European Specialist Qualification Order (1995).
If you intend to apply to specialty/GP training in the 2007 application rounds, you will need to
compete for entry in the normal way and, if successful, discuss your requirement to train less than
full time with the deanery responsible for the programme. Current flexible training arrangements
will not be transferred automatically to a new programme.
If you need to train less than full time and are planning to apply in the 2007 application process,
you:
■ will need to confirm with your local deanery that you are eligible (see below)
■ will need to indicate your wish to train less than full time on your application form, but
this will be “protected” information and will not be seen by anyone involved in the selection
process;
■ will need to discuss the details of your training needs with the relevant deanery, if you
are selected
■ you may be offered the opportunity to slot share, or to occupy a full time post, but take
less than full time training through it; or
■ you may be offered a separately funded flexible training post.
These arrangements will vary within deaneries and in some cases, you may have to wait for a
training placement to become available. In Oxford the Associate Dean in charge of flexible training
is Dr. Barbara Thornley and she can be contacted on
bthornley@oxford-pgmde.co.ukTrainees who want out-of-programme experience
You will still be able to take time out of your run-through training programme, as long as you have
the prospective agreement of the postgraduate dean and programme director. This is arranged on
a person-by-person basis. The rules about out-of programme experience are unlikely to change
significantly from current arrangements, although the basis on which competences acquired
outside of UK training programmes will be assessed towards the award of a CCT remains an issue
for PMETB guidance.
Non-UK trained doctors
If you have not undertaken your early training in the UK, you are still eligible to apply for
specialist/GP training at the appropriate level, indicated by the specialty person specification. If you
have not undertaken a UK Foundation Programme, you will need to offer evidence to appointment
panels that you have acquired the foundation competences. There will be advice available on royal
college websites concerning the type of evidence which might be relevant and this should be
collected into a portfolio which will need to be produced during the selection process.
تقويت كننده برق
- تراگذران برق - تر انسدكتور- دستگاه توان، ولتاژ يا جريانافزا
- تراديسندهاين دستگاه يا ابزار شامل يك يا چند هسته فروآهنربايي هم راه با چند سيم
ميتواند توسط يك ولتاژ
d.c. يا a.c. پيچ است كه با آن يك جريان يا ولتاژيا جريان مستقل، و با بهره گيري از پديده اشباع
(سيرايي- سيري پذيري ) درمدار آهنربايي، تغيير كند
.به انگليسي
) Tranducteur magnetiquc اصطلاح فرانسويرا به
Transducteur نبايد با اصطلاح فرانسوي متداول (Tranductorاشتباه گرفته شود
. كاربرد اصطلاح دومي به جاي (Transducer انگليسياولي هنگامي مجاز شمرده ميشود كه هيچگونه ابهام دو پهلويي وجود نداشته
با شد
.سازن تقويت كننده
(سازن= عنصر= المان)- سازن تراگذر- سازن مبدل القايي -يكي از هست ه هاي دستگاه است كه همراه سيم پيچ هايش، پاره اي از
دستگاه تقويت كننده
(تراگذر) را شكل ميدهد.سيم پيچ تحريك
-سيم پيچ روي سازن
(عنصر) تقويت كننده (تراگذر ) است كه توسط آندستگاه تحريك ميشود
.سيم پيچ توان
(قدرت)سيم پيچ سازن
(عنصر) تقويت كننده دستگاه (تراگذر) است كه جريان بار ازآن ميگذرد
.۵ سيم پيچ كنترل سيم پيچ تحريك است كه به وسيله آن توان برونداد (خروجي ) ازيك منبعبيروني كنترل ميشود
.سيم پيچ باياس
سيم پيچ تحريك گذرا ننده، جرياني كه براي جا به جاسازي نقطه ميانينكاركرد در روي مشخصه ايستا
(استاتيك)، به كار ميرود.سيم پيچ خود
- تحريك (سازي)- سيم پيچ تحريك سرخود سيم پيچ تحريكي است كه توسط آن پديده خود تحريك شوندگي پديدارميشود
.ابزار يا لامپ يكسو كننده خود
- تحريك (ساز)- سوپاپ لامپي يكسو كنندهتحريك سرخود
( شير- سوپاپ- لامپ خلا)ابزار يا لامپ يكسو كننده اي است كه به طور سري
(ريسه بند ) به سيم پيچتوان يك دستگاه تقويت كننده
(تراگذر) وصل ميشود تا آن كه خود تحريكشوندگي در آن پديدار شود
. - اصطلاحهاي مربوط به كميت هاي فيزيكي -ولتاژ برونداد
- ولتاژ بارولتاژي است كه دريك مدار داراي يك دستگاه تقويت كننده
(تراگذر ) بهامپدانس بار واگذار
(تحويل) ميشود.ولتاژ جذب شده
-ولتاژي است كه توسط يك دستگاه تقويت كنند ه (تراگذر) در يك مدار جذب
ميشود.
جريان كنترل
- جريان فرمان -جرياني است كه در يك سيم پيچ كنترل يك ابزار تقويت كننده (تراگذر )
جاري ميشود
.ولتاژ كنترل
-ولتاژ دو سر پايانه هاي كنترلي يك ابزار تقويت كننده (تراگذر) است.مشخصه ايستا
(استاتيك)(
يك ابزار تقويت كننده)؛منحني انتقال
(واگذاري)(
يك ابزار تقويت كننده)نمايش نموداري رابطه ميان يك كميت برونداد و يك كميت كنترل درشرايط
روند
(حالت) ماندگار ميباشد.نسبت ولتاژ
تقويت سازي ولتاژ
نسبت يك تغيي ر كوچك ولتاژ برونداد، در شرايط روند
-ماندگار، به تغييرمتناظر
(همنگر) در ولتاژ كنترل در بار و شرايط بهره برداري معين است.نسبت جريان
-تقويت سازي جرياننسبت يك تغيير كوچك درجريان برونداد، در شرايط روند
- ماندگار، به تغييرمتناظر
(همنگر) جريان كنترل دربار و شرايط بهره برداري معين است.تقويت سازي توان
- توان افزايي -نسبت يك تغيير كوچك در توان برونداد، در شرايط روند
- ماندگار، به تغييرمتناظر
(همنگر) توان كنترل، در بار و شرايط بهره برداري معين است.ثابت زماني كل
-ثابت زماني پاسخ يك كميت برونداد يك دستگاه تقويت كننده
(تراگذر)به يكتغيير كوچك ناگهاني ولتاژ كنترل دربار و شرايط بهره برداري معين است
.ثابت زمان پس ماند
- ثابت زماني پسماند -ثابت زماني پاسخ يك كميت برونداد يك دستگاه تقويت كننده
(تراگذر ) بهيك تغ يير كوچك ناگهاني جريان كنترل، دربار و شرايط بهره برداري معين
ا س ت
.ثابت زمان درونداد
- ثابت زماني ورودي -اختلاف ميان ثابت زماني كل و ثابت زماني پس ماند است.زمان پاسخ
-اين زمان از لحظه تغيير ناگهاني يك كميت كنترل تا تغيير متنا ظر
(همنگر) آندر يك كميت برونداد است كه به كسر معين ي از مقدار نهايي اش رسيده
با شد
.القاي اشباع
(اشباعي)- القاي سيرايي- اندوكتانس سيري پذيري (اندوكتانس = مقاومت القايي)مقاومت القايي يك سيم پيچ است كه متناظر
(همنگر) با تغييرات يك شاركوچك درمحدوده سيرايي
(اشباع) منحني آهنربايي است.راكتانس اشباع
(اشباعي)- مقاومت واكنشي سيرايي -مقاومت واكنشي متناظر
(همنگر) با مقاومت القايي اشباع (سيرايي ) در بسامد(
فركانس) جريان متناوب، منبع توان است.۱۵ عدد مزيت
- رقم مزيت -نسبت تقويت سازي توان
(توان افزايي) به زمان پاسخ است.
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For many, home movies were originally played on the classic vcr tape. Then, the technology moved onto DVD players, and the look of the movies was sharper and of a much better quality. Now the next evolution has started with blue ray technology.
Finding out about what it is includes learning about the differences between this kind of technology and the current mass marketed DVD systems. This new kind of technology has been developing for years, since the mid 1990's when HDTV's were becoming more common for consumers to buy. A technology was needed that could record and play back the high definition recordings. Blue Ray technology was created to fill that void.
So what is so special with this technology and how is it different from the standard DVD? BR technology can store far more information that the traditional DVD, almost 5 times more storage is available on a blue ray disc. The blue ray discs use a blue ray laser to read the information where other DVD's use a red laser.
With a blue laser the wave length is shorter allowing for more storage to be used. This did cause some problems originally, as the discs were much easier to scratch. The case that held the disc had to be made more durable and was somewhat bulky. Advances in polymer coatings have advanced allowing for a better protective coating to be placed on the disc, alleviating the need for the bigger containers.
There are many companies that have a stake in the development of the next cutting edge technology and these companies are looking into both blue ray technology and a HD DVD. Some of the big companies are fighting over which technology should be used and this has caused a split in which companies support which format. Even companies that produce movies are split over which type of technology to use, which means depending on what movie a consumer wishes to purchase; they may need two different types of players.
Both the blue ray and the hddvd players are continuing to improve. In the end, consumers may discover that they enjoy both types of players and they both may be successful with consumers. Learning about what is this technology exactly can help a consumer get a good idea of basic information in regards to this new technology.
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FireWire is integrated into Power Macs, iMacs, eMacs, MacBooks, MacBook Pros, and the iPod. FireWire ports were also integrated into many other computer products dating back to the Power Macintosh G3 "Blue & White" computers. All these machines include FireWire ports that operate at up to 400 megabits per second and the latest machines include FireWire ports that support 1394b and operate at up to 800 megabits per second
FireWire is a cross-platform implementation of the high-speed serial data bus -- defined by the IEEE 1394-1995, IEEE 1394a-2000, and IEEE 1394b standards -- that can move large amounts of data between computers and peripheral devices. It features simplified cabling, hot swapping, and transfer speeds of up to 800 megabits per second (on machines that support 1394b
Major manufacturers of multimedia devices have been adopting the FireWire technology, and for good reason. FireWire speeds up the movement of multimedia data and large files and enables easy connection of digital consumer products -- including digital camcorders, digital video tapes,digital video disks, set-top boxes, and music systems -- directly to a personal computer
This page will focus mainly on SRAM (Static RAM). SRAM retains the values you put in it, unlike DRAM (Dynamic RAM), which needs to be refreshed several times every second. The only real advantage DRAM has over SRAM is that it's much cheaper, so it's necessarily used for the main system RAM on most PCs. (If RAM manufacturers used SRAM for main PC RAM, the RAM in your computer would probably cost more than the CPU!) DRAM sucks, however, because the fact that it needs to be constantly refreshed makes it hugely annoying to work with. So, SRAM it will be!
On the outside, SRAM chips are pretty simple. Aside from address bus and data bus pins and two power pins, there are only three other pins on a typical SRAM chip: Chip Enable (CE), Output Enable (OE), and Write Enable (WE). On the inside, all RAM chips consist mainly of a big grid of RAM cells, tiny devices which are each capable of storing a single bit. (Of course, the RAM cells are organized into bytes. Typically, 8 bits make a byte, although this is not necessarily the case.) So we see that all an SRAM chip really has to do is use the address sent to it to select a single byte-sized line of RAM cells, enable all those cells, and if it's writing to memory, to change what's stored in those cells. A short enough explanation, but each step of the process involves devices which contain many smaller devices.
Let's start with the most fundamental part of an SRAM chip: A RAM cell. In SRAM, the RAM cells are basically D-type flip-flops, so to understand RAM cells, you need to understand D flip-flops. Before we get into D flip-flops, however, you need to understand...
The set/reset latch is the most basic latch circuit. A latch is a digital electronic logic circuit which, upon receiving an instruction to change its output, will "latch" the output, so that the output does not change even after the input has been removed. The set/reset (S/R) latch looks like this internally:
The S/R latch has two inputs and two outputs. The two inputs are labeled "Set" and "Reset". Set, when enabled, turns on the latch, and Reset turns it off. The two outputs are labeled Q and /Q. (The Q with the line over it in the diagram means "NOT Q", or the inverse of Q. Since there is no way to create a line over a character in text, usually the convention of preceding a signal with a slash is used to indicate "NOT".) Q is the main output for the latch. When the latch is on, Q will be 1. When the latch is off, Q will be 0. /Q is the opposite of Q, so when Q is 1, /Q will be 0, and vice-versa.
Not that this is an active-high S/R latch, meaning that its inputs trigger when they go high. It's possible to make an active-low S/R latch by replacing the NOR gates with NAND gates, but we won't get into that now.
As you can see, when Set goes high, the output of the NOR gate on the bottom must be 0 (because when either NOR input is high, the output is 0). This sets /Q to 0. This same 0 goes to the lower input on the NOR gate at the top; Since Reset must be low (since Set is high), both inputs to the NOR gate at the top are 0. Therefore, since both inputs are 0, it outputs a 1. This 1 hits the top input of the bottom gate, keeping the gate on (and setting Q to 1), and the latch remains stable in this state until Reset goes high. Similarly, the opposite happens when Reset goes high. The workings of this latch may seem confusing at first, but if you follow the logic paths you should be able to understand it clearly.
The R/S latch is the basis for most digital flip-flop circuits. Once you understand it, you can move on to...
The D flip-flop is quite a simple digital device with four pins; Two of these pins are inputs, and two are outputs. The chief input is the D (Data) pin, which, like any other digital signal, can receive either a 1 or a 0. The other input is the E (Enable) pin, sometimes labeled the Clock or Clk pin. The two outputs are Q and /Q (NOT Q, or the inverse of Q). However, within RAM, the /Q output of a D flip-flop is not used, and thus the flip-flop can, for purposes of using it in RAM, be reduced to a three-pin device with two input pins and one output pin. A simple enough device, indeed.
The operation of the D flip-flop is simple: The Q output reflects the D input. When the Enable or Clock pin is activated, the state of D is stored in Q. Once this happens, Q stays the same and does not change, regardless of the state of D, unless the Clock pin is triggered again. The D flip-flop thus acts as a single-bit memory storage unit: When you want to store a bit in it, you set D accordingly and pulse its clock. Once this is done, its Q output will reflect the bit stored in the flip-flop until you change it.
Internally, the D flip-flop is basically an R/S latch with some additional circuitry added to the inputs.
Note that D flip-flops are usually "edge-triggered", meaning that they will change their state only in the moment that the Clock pin is enabled. The D flip-flop diagrammed here is not edge-triggered; The output will follow the input as long as the Clock pin is enabled. There's nothing really wrong with this in terms of using the flip-flop for RAM. We could turn it into an edge-triggered device with some more gates, but that's not necessary now.
The D flip-flop is a great device, but to make it more useful, it should come equipped with an Enable pin. Many D flip-flop chips do have Enable pins, but in keeping with the theme of illustrating the internals of these devices, it's appropriate to show you...
In digital logic design, you can add an Enable signal to just about any digital signal by simply running it through a tri-state logic buffer. A digital logic buffer is just a device that takes whatever digital logic is fed into it, and outputs the exact same signal. (Sort of like a NOT gate, except without the inverting part.) A "tri-state" digital device is one which includes an Enable pin, so that you can enable or disable the output. When the Enable pin is turned off, the output goes into a "high-impedance" state in which it is essentially a dead pin, disconnected from the rest of the device. The digital logic symbol for a tri-state logic buffer looks like this:
At the component level, a tri-state digital logic buffer is really just a single transistor. The base of the transistor acts as the Enable pin, the transistor's Collector is the logic input, and the Emitter is the logic output. Thinking about it in this way, the tri-state logic buffer would look like this:
Now that we know how to make a D flip-flop and put an Enable pin on it, we have...
A typical RAM cell has only four connections: Data in (the D pin on the D flip-flop), data out (the Q pin on the D flip-flop), Write Enable (often abbreviated WE; The C pin on the D flip-flop), and Output Enable (the Enable pin which we added). Now that we have this concept, we can black-box it, which, for simplicity's sake, I will do on this web page from this point henceforth. Our RAM cell, made into a logic block, looks like this:
If you've understood everything thus far, you're almost done with understanding how SRAM works. You already know how one individual memory cell works, so now the trick is to just arrange them in an array so that you can address each one independently. To do this, we need to be able to take memory addresses and use them appropriately, so the next thing we'll learn is...
An address decoder is a device which reads in a binary-represented memory address, and based on the address it receives, turns on a single output. If an address decoder has n inputs, then it will have 2^n (2 to the power of n) outputs. At any point in time, only one output line is on, and all the others are off. The decoder must have a separate output for every byte in memory. Since a byte is 8 bits (usually), and every RAM cell is one bit, each output from the memory decoder goes to 8 RAM cells.
For simplicity's sake, we'll illustrate two small-scale memory decoders: The 2-to-4 decoder, and the 3-to-8 decoder. In reality, a modern RAM chip would have much larger decoders than this; An 8 kilobyte RAM chip (which is quite small by today's standards) would have a built-in 13-to-8192 decoder, but trying to draw that and represent it here on this website would probably be overkill.
An address decoder is a form of combinatorial circuit; The idea behind it is that for every possible combination of inputs, there needs to be a separate output that will activate. For example, suppose we have a 2-to-4 decoder; This is a decoder with two inputs and four outputs. The idea is that for every possible combination of 1s and 0s on the two inputs, a different output needs to activate. There are four possible ways to put 1s and 0s on two inputs: 00, 01, 10, and 11. If we call the inputs "in0" and "in1" and the outputs "out0" to "out3", then the 2-to-4's truth table looks something like this:
in0 in1 ³ out0 out1 out2 out3
ؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤإؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤؤ
0 0 ³ 1 0 0 0
³
0 1 ³ 0 1 0 0
³
1 0 ³ 0 0 1 0
³
1 1 ³ 0 0 0 1
The circuit diagram for a decoder might look complicated at first, but actually, it can be pieced together from a pretty simple idea, so just before I show you the diagram for one, let me try to explain the concept: To make a decoder, you attach two wires to each input. One wire simply comes directly from the input, while the other wire passes through a NOT gate (an inverter, which sets a logic 0 to a 1, and vice-versa). Once this is done, you have something that looks like this:
After this, take one wire from each input, and connect the ends of them to an AND gate. The output of the AND gate then becomes one of the address decoder's outputs. Add different AND gates for each possible combination of inputs, and you're done. Each outputting AND gate must have a different combination of input triggers. This way, only one output will ever turn on at a time.
For example, while making our 2-to-4 decoder, suppose you just happen to take the input from in0 that DOESN'T pass through an inverter, and the input from in1 which DOES pass through an inverter. It should be clear that in order for both of these wires to be holding a logic 1, in0 needs to be on, and in1 needs to be off. This corresponds with the third line of the truth table above, so after you connect these two wires to the inputs of an AND gate, the output for that AND gate becomes out2.
Whether or not you understand what was written above, perhaps the diagram below of a 2-to-4 decoder will make things clearer now:
The red lines indicate the wires going to the AND gate at the top. The output of this AND gate will come on only when both inputs to the decoder are on. The green lines are for the second-highest AND gate, which will energize when the lower input is on, but the top input is off. The purple wires signify the AND gate which will activate when the top input is on but the bottom one is off, and finally, the blue lines lead to the AND gate for when both inputs are off. There are four possible combinations of input to this decoder, and each has a corresponding single output. A 3-to-8 decoder works the same way, except it would have eight AND gates at the right, three inputs, a NOT gate for each input, and more wiring.
Now that we know how to make a RAM cell, a tri-state buffer, and an address decoder, we have all the sub-circuits we need to make a complete, working RAM array. It's time to put it all together.
For this introduction, we'll illustrate a 4x2 SRAM array. RAM arrays are designated as bxw, where b is the number of bytes in the array, and w is the byte width, meaning how many bits are in each byte. Thus, our 4x2 RAM array has 4 bytes, and each byte contains two bits. (Most RAM arrays that you see in electronics parts catalogs will be somethingx8, because it's pretty typical to have 8 bits in a byte, but it's good to be different sometimes, and having only two bits to a byte makes things easier to draw, too.)
In an SRAM array, the RAM cells are arranged and wired up as follows:
Typically, when diagrammed, a row of RAM cells represents one byte, and each column represents one bit in each byte. So in our 4x2 RAM array, we would have 4 rows (because we have 4 bytes total), and each row will have be two columns wide (because each has two bits):
The Enable pins on the RAM cells lead from the outputs on the address decoder. Thus, each output on the address decoder goes to each RAM cell in one row of the RAM array (because you want to enable all of the bits in each byte when that byte is accessed).
The outputs from the address decoder are also ANDed with the Write Enable signal to go to the cells' Write Enable pin. That way, when both a particular address AND the Write Enable signal are on, the data gets put into the cell. (Please note that at this point, I lost my patience with trying to draw all this, and so the picture below is only half-done; The output of the AND gate in each row should be going to the RAM cell on the right as well, but things got a bit too cluttered to provide any easy way for me to add this.)
The only thing remaining is the data pins. They can simply be left as they are, to provide two separate data buses (one for data in, the other for data out), but microprocessors usually expect to use a bidirectional data bus. To achieve this, the data bus is connected to both the Data In pins and the Data Out pins of the RAM cells. This gives you a bidirectional data bus, but there needs to be a bit of additional circuitry added to this so that data only flows into the RAM array of out of it, but not both. And so we come to...
To ensure that data only flows in one direction at a time (either coming out of the RAM array or going into it), two diodes are used right next to each RAM cell, so that data only goes into it or out from it, but not both:
And there you have it. That's pretty much how RAM works. At least SRAM, anyway. And you don't really want to know how DRAM works, because DRAM sucks. Everybody should use SRAM and eliminate DRAM altogether.
High fidelity audio and visual components were at first treated with skepticism. Many people didn’t believe there was much of a difference and thought that hi-fi was a gimmick to sell more costly equipment. Enthusiasts soon learned that hi-fi did indeed offer higher quality reproduction. Hi-fi components became so popular that the term was used to refer to the components themselves as well as to the technology. For example, when referring to a record player or turntable, people might say, “Put a record on the hi-fi.”
Today, the term hi-fi is used to describe any sound system of above average quality. It also refers to other components that make up home theater systems. It may include everything from your television, DVD, and satelitte receiver, to your compact disc player, other stereo components, and sorround speakers.
Much like computer enthusiasts, hi-fi enthusiasts enjoy putting together custom systems. Just as a computer enthusiast will choose separate components from diverse manufacturers in order to take advantage of certain specialties, a hi-fi enthusiast will do the same. Not only is this the best way to create a unique, high quality system, but it also allows the enthusiast to build the system one piece at a time, giving her greater freedom to spend more on each component. Instead of putting out a lot of money at one time to purchase an entire system, one can build a collection of high quality components at his own pace. This is also important when it comes to upgrading hi-fi equipment, as the enthusiast can simply replace one piece at a time.
آشكارساز تناسبي چيست؟
كارت هوشمند چيست وچگونه كار ميكند؟
يك كارت هوشمند از نظر اندازه شبيه به كارتهاي اعتباري پلاستيكي كه يك تراشه در آن كار گذاشته شده است ميباشد. قرار دادن يك تراشه در كارت به جاي نوار مغناطيسي، آن را تبديل به يك كارت هوشمند با قدرت سرويسدهي در مصارف گوناگون مينمايد. اين كارتها به دليل دارا بودن تراشه، داراي قابليت كنترل عملكرد بوده و فقط اطلاعات مربوط شخصي و تجاري كاربر واجد شرايط را پردازش مينمايد.
كارت هوشمند قابليت استفاده در انواع معاملات بانكي و پشتيباني مالي را دارد و به دليل راحتي حمل و نقل و امنيت موجب آسايش خيال كاربر وتامين اطلاعات گوناگون مورد نياز وي ميگردد. استفاده از امكانات متنوع كارتهاي هوشمند به تجار اين امكان را ميدهد كه محصولات و كالاهاي خود را در بازارهاي جهاني ارائه وفعاليتهاي تجاري خود راگسترش دهند. بانكها، شركتهاي نرمافزاري وسخت افزاري، خطوط هوايي وهمه اين شانس را خواهند داشت كه به بهرهمندي از خدمات نوين محصولات كارتي خود در جهت ارتقاء سطح فعاليتها و ارائه محصولاتشان دست يابند.
تركيب امكانات نهفته در كارتهاي هوشمند سبب ايجاد ارتباط نزديكتر ميان طرفين تجاري وآنهايي ميگردد كه در اقصي نقاط دنيا به نحوي با يكديگر داراي روابط تجاري ميباشند.
امروزه در دنيا بيش از 4/4 ميليارد كارت اعتباري استفاده ميشود. فعاليتهاي اقتصادي - مالي مبتني بر كارتهاي هوشمند به ميزان 30 درصد در سال رشد دارد. همچنين تحقيقات انجام شده حاكي از آن است كه در سراسر دنيا طي 5 سال آينده صنعت كارتهاي هوشمند و وسايل و تجهيزاتي كه امكان استفاده از آن را ميسر ميسازند به طور قابل توجهي رشد خواهد داشت وهمچنين افزايش امكانات وقابليتهاي دستيابي با امنيت كافي به شبكههاي كامپيوتري وتوسعه رو به رشد استفاده از تجارت الكترونيكي سبب رايجتر شدن بكارگيري كارتهاي هوشمند ميگردد.
با در نظر گرفتن همين ميزان مصرف، انتظار ميرود كارتهاي هوشمند براي 95درصد خدمات تلفن بيسيم وديجيتالي كه در تمام دنيا ارائه ميشود مورد بهرهبرداري قرار گيرند. آسيا، آمريكاي لاتين وآمريكاي شمالي مناطقي هستند كه بالاترين پتانسيل را در 3 سال آينده براي گرايش به استفاده از كارتهاي هوشمند بهخود اختصاص خواهند داد.
اكنون بيشترين زمينههاي كاربري از كارتهاي هوشمند در سطح دنيا مربوط به تلفنهاي پولي وبيسيم، بانكداري، خدمات بهداشتي و پرداخت آبونمان و لوازم خانگي بوده است.
چرا كارتهاي هوشمند تا اين اندازه متداول شدهاند؟
با وجودي كه در حال حاضر ميلياردها كارت هوشمند در دنياي فعلي در دست كاربران قرار دارد، اما ممكن است فردي كارت را از يك كشور خاص تهيه نمايد و بخواهد از آن در ساير كشورها استفاده كند. توليدكنندگان تجهيزات و ارائهدهندگان كارتهاي هوشمند براي تامين چنين كاربردهايي، تكنولوژي كارتهاي چند منظوره را ايجاد كرده ودر تلاش هستند تا نوعي سازگاري ميان تجهيزات وكارت هاي توزيع شده در سراسر دنيا به وجود آورند.براي تحقق بخشيدن به اين مساله بايد اصول تجاري و فني مورد نياز واصول استاندارد و هماهنگ با هر كشور، ميان كارتها و پايانهها و مشخصههاي موجود در تجهيزات وسايل ايجاد و مورد آزمايش قرار گيرند. كليد اصلي در دستيابي به اين امر جهاني در دست صنعت مربوطه قرار دارد.
استاندارد چه نقشي را در كارآيي كارتهاي هوشمند ايفا ميكند؟
استانداردها در واقع عواملي هستند كه، هماهنگي وتطابق ميان كارتها و وسايل كارتخوان يا پشتيباني كننده را تضمين مينمايند. وجود استانداردهاي جهاني و ثابت در اين امر باعث ميشود تا كارهاي توليد و توزيع شده در يك قسمت از دنيا به وسيله دستگاهي در بخش ديگري از دنيا پذيرفته شده و مورد استفاده قرار گيرند.
صنايع، خدمات و فعاليتهاي بسياري وجود دارد كه از طريق اعمال استانداردها و ضوابط بينالمللي ميتوان عملكرد آنها را تحت پوشش كارتهاي هوشمند قرار داد كه دستگاههاي پمپ بنزين، سيستمهاي پرداخت بانكي و بسياري موارد ديگر از اين قبيل هستند. به همين دليل سازمان بينالمللي استاندارد، اصولي را براي كارتهاي هوشمند ايجاد و تثبيت كرده است و اين اصول همچنان در حال توسعه و همهگير شدن هستند.
همچنين بخشي از صنايع انحصاري موفق شدهاند اصول و استانداردهاي مشخصي را براي استفاده از كارتهاي هوشمند به وجود آورده و هم اكنون در حال گسترش و تثبيت آنها در سراسر دنيا ميباشند. لذا حضور وسيع حضور نمايي مزيتهاي فراوان موجود دركارتهاي هوشمند صنايع و خدمات مختلف جهاني را بر آن داشته تا با ارائه ضوابط و استانداردهاي مدون و قانوني موفقيت آنها را تضمين نمايند.
* مزاياي عمدهاي كه كارتهاي هوشمند به مصرف كننده ارائه ميدهند چگونه ارزيابي ميشود؟
البته مزاياي كارتهاي هوشمند را بايد با در نظر گرفتن كاربردها و نحوه مديريت و ايجاد زيرساختهاي فرهنگي و تخصصي در هر جامعه بررسي نمود. عموما دستورالعملها و استاندارد محلي وضع شده و نحوه برخورد و حمايت قانون از كاربردهاي اين كارتها در ارتقاء مزاياي آن مؤثر ميباشد. شيوه زندگي و اهميت دستيابي به اطلاعات و چگونگي پردازش آنها و قوانين موجود در تنظيم روابط مالي نيز در تعريف مزاياي كارتهاي هوشمند براي هر منطقه از دنيا حائز اهميت است كه نميتوان آنها را ناديده گرفت. با اين وجود مزاياي عمده اهداف اصلي ايجاد سيستمهاي بكارگيري كارتهاي هوشمند ميتوان در توانايي اداره يا كنترل مؤثر فعاليتهاي تجاري كاهش چشمگير كلاهبرداري، كاهش كاغذبازي وحذف فعاليتهاي زائد و وقتگير خلاصه نمود.
كارت هوشمند چند منظوره چيست؟
كارت هوشمند، براي راحتتر شدن و كاهش فعاليتهاي زائد در امور تجاري و غيره توليد گرديده، فعاليتهايي از قبيل (خريد و فروش، برنامه هاي بهداشتي، خدمات بانكي، خدمات مسافرتي و...). اگر قرار باشد براي انجام هر يك از فعاليتهاي فوق يك كارت هوشمند اختصاص يابد، آنگاه تعداد كارتها خود مشكل جديدي ميشود كه بر تمايلات كاربران تأثير منفي گذاشته و از كارآيي آن نيز ميكاهد.
يك كارت چند منظوره پاسخ مناسبي براي اين موضوع است زيرا كارت چند منظوره ميتواند انواع مختلفي از كارتها را پشتيباني نمايد.
به عنوان مثال كارت چند منظوره "ويزا" كارتي ميباشد كه تركيبي از اعتبار توسعه يافته ويزا در برگيرنده ستون بدهي و توابع ذخيره مالي و ذخيرهسازي ميزان اعتبار مالي ميتواند در مسافرتها كارآيي فراواني داشته باشد.
كارتهاي چند منظوره با تحت پوشش قرار دادن موضوعات متنوعي از عمليات خريدها وخدمات گوناگون مالي موجبات آسايش كاربران را فراهم ساخته است.
كارت اعتباري بدون تماس چيست؟
دو نوع كارت اعتباري بدون تماس وجود دارد. اولي يك كارت بدون تماس از راه نزديك است كه با وارد كردن آن در يك دستگاه جانبي مخصوص خوانده ميشود. و دومين كارت بدون تماس از راه دور است كه بدون استفاده از دستگاه جانبي كارتخوان قادر است از يك مسافرت معين و به صورت كنترل از راه دور خوانده شود كه در دكههاي دريافت عوارض كاربرد زيادي دارد.
قيمت يك كارت تراشه دار چقدر است؟
در تلاش براي پاسخ دادن به اين سئوال كه بيشتر مانند پرسيدن قيمت ماشين، بدون در نظر گرفتن اينكه يك فولكس واگن دسته دوم و قديمي است و يا يك رولزرويس آخرين مدل، بايد گفت بهاي كارتهاي تراشهدار 15 الي 80 درصد بستگي به ظرفيت آنها و كميت اعتباري داشته و در اين محدوده متغير است.
چرا بارگذاري (شارژ) مجدد يك كارت هوشمند اهميت دارد؟
كارتهاي يكبار مصرف و قابل شارژ مجدد، هر دو از بازارهاي مصرف و كاربري برخوردار هستند. كارتهاي يكبار مصرف در مواقعي كه كاربر در مسافرت به سر ميبرد و يا به منظور پرداخت وروديهها و مصارفي شبيه اينها مورد استفاده قرار ميگيرند و عمدتا استفاده از آن براي يك زمان مشخص ميباشد كه پس از اتمام ذخيره، فاقد ارزش و بهرهبرداري ميباشد و دور انداخته ميشود.
اگر كارت مورد بحث چند منظوره باشد و مثلا ارزشها و اعتبارات را ذخيره كرده و حسابهاي بدهكار و بستانكار كاربر را ثبت نمايد، كاربر آن را دور نخواهد انداخت. صحيحتر خواهد بود كه انرژي (اعتبار) ذخيره شده، قابل شارژ يا بارگذاري مجدد بوده و كاربر مجبور به خريد مكرر كارتهاي يكبار مصرف نگردد.
كارتهاي اعتباري تا چه اندازه ايمن و مطمئن هستند؟
كارتهاي هوشمند عملا امنيت و اطمينان بيشتري نسبت به ساير وسايل ذخيره اطلاعات مالي ارائه ميدهند. يك كارت هوشمند مكان امني براي ذخيره اطلاعات گرانبهايي مثل كليدهاي اختصاصي، شماره حسابها، رمزها يا ساير اطلاعات خصوصي ارزشمند ميباشد. كارتهاي هوشمند با قدرت انجام محاسبههاي پيچيده قابليت تأمين امنيت بالاتر را دارا هستند و سلامت كاري صاحب كارت را فراهم ميسازند.
آيا رهنمودهايي براي مصرفكننده در استفاده از كارتهاي هوشمند وجود دارد؟
بله، براي اولين بار شركتهاي توليدي كارت هوشمند، اطلاعاتي را در رابطه با صنعت و توزيعكنندگان كارت هوشمند، روشهايي عمومي و قانوني ارائه كردند. درك و شناخت صحيح اين رهنمودها بسيار مهم است، خصوصا اينكه براي اولين بار اين اطلاعات توسعه صنايع چندگانه به طور داوطلبانه پذيرفته شده و در حال تكامل است.
* انتظارات شخصي مصرفكنندگان را شناسايي كرده و در نظر بگيريد و رهنمودهاي شخصي ارائه شده را در مورد آنان اجرا نماييد.
* به منظور تأمين خدمات بهتر و ارائه فرصتهاي جديد به مصرفكننده، استفاده، جمعآوري و نگهداري اطلاعات مربوطه به آنها را (تا حدي كه نياز است)تهيه و بايد كامل شود.
* وسيلهاي را براي مصرفكنندگان تهيه و در محلهاي مختلف تعبيه كنيد تا اسامي آنان را به بازار و با شركت به طور مستقيم يا پست و يا موارد درخواستي ديگر ارسال نمايد.
* روشهاي انجام شده و در دسترس، كارمند را از نظر شخصي محدود ميسازد.
رباتيك: علم شناخت و طراحی آدمک های مصنوعی و هوشمند
ربات چيست؟
ربات يك ماشين الکترومکانيكی هوشمند است با خصوصيات زير:
· می توان آن را مکرراً برنامه ريزی کرد.
· چند کاره است.
· کارآمد و مناسب برای محيط است.
اجزای يك روبات:
· وسايل مکانيكی و الکتريكی:
شاسی، موتورها، منبع تغذيه، ...
· حسگرها (برای شناسايي محيط):
دورين ها، سنسورهای sonar، سنسورهای ultrasound، ...
· عملکردها (برای انجام اعمال لازم)
بازوی روبات، چرخها، پاها، ...
· قسمت تصميم گيري (برنامه ای برای تعيين اعمال لازم):
حرکت در يك جهت خاص، دوری از موانع، برداشتن اجسام، ...
· قسمت کنترل (برای راه اندازی و بررسی حرکات روبات):
نيروها و گشتاورهای موتورها برای سرعت مورد نظر، جهت مورد نظر، کنترل مسير، ...
تاريخچه روباتيك:
- حدود سال 1250 م: بیشاپ آلبرتوس ماگنوس (Bishop Albertus Magnus) ضیافتی ترتیب داد که درآن، میزبانان آهنی از مهمانان پذیرایی می کردند. با دیدن این روبات، سنت توماس آکویناس (Thomas Aquinas) برآشفته شد، میزبان آهنی را تکه تکه کرد و بیشاب را ساحر و جادوگر خواند.
- سال 1640 م: دکارت ماشين خودکاری به صورت يك خانم ساخت و آن را Ma fille Francine " می نامید.
این ماشين که دکارت را در يك سفر دریایی همراهی می کرد، توسط کاپیتان کشتی به آب پرتاب شد چرا که وی تصور می کرد این موجود ساخته شیطان است.
- سال 1738 م: ژاک دواکانسن (Jacques de Vaucanson) يك اردک مکانيكی ساخت که از بیش از 4000 قطعه تشکیل شده بود.
این اردک می توانست از خود صدا تولید کند، شنا کند، آب بنوشد، دانه بخورد و آن را هضم و سپس دفع کند. امروزه در مورد محل نگهداری این اردک اطلاعی در دست نیست.
- سال 1805 م: عروسکی توسط میلاردت (Maillardet) ساخته شد که می توانست به زبان انگلیسی و فرانسوی بنویسد و مناظری را نقاشی کند.
- سال 1923 م: کارل چاپک (Karel Capek) برای اولین بار از کلمه روبات (robot) در نمایشنامه خود به عنوان آدم مصنوعی استفاده کرد. کلمه روبات از کلمه چک robota گرفته شده است که به معنی برده و کارگر مزدور است. موضوع نمایشنامه چاپک، کنترل انسانها توسط روباتها بود، ولی او هرگونه امکان جایگزینی انسان با روبات و یا اینکه روباتها از احساس برخوردار شوند، عاشق شوند، یا تنفر پیدا کنند را رد می کرد.
- سال 1940 م: شرکت وستینگهاوس (Westinghouse Co.) سگی به نام اسپارکو (Sparko) ساخت که هم از قطعات مکانيكی و هم الکتريكی در ساخب آن استفاده شده بود. این اولین باری بود که از قطعات الکتريكی نیز همراه با قطعات مکانيكی استفاده می شد.
- سال 1942 م: کلمه روباتيك (robatics) اولین بار توسط ایزاک آسیموف در يك داستان کوتاه ارائه شد. ایزاک آسیموف (1920-1992) نویسنده کتابهای توصیفی درباره علوم و داستانهای علمی تخیلی است.
- دهه 1950 م: تکنولوژی کامپیوتر پیشرفت کرد و صنعت کنترل متحول شد. سؤلاتی مطرح شدند. مثلاً: آیا
کامپیوتر يك روبات غیر متحرک است؟
- سال 1954 م: عصر روبات ها با ارائه اولین روبات آدم نما توسط جرج دوول (George Devol) شروع شد.
امروزه، 90% روباتها، روباتهای صنعتی هستند، یعنی روباتهایی که در کارخانه ها، آزمایشگاهها، انبارها، نیروگاهها، بیمارستانها، و بخشهای مشابه به کارگرفته می شوند.
در سالهای قبل، اکثر روباتهای صنعتی در کارخانه های خودروسازی به کارگرفته می شدند، ولی امروزه تنها حدود نیمی از روباتهای موجود در دنیا در کارخانه های خودروسازی به کار گرفته می شوند.
مصارف روباتها در همه ابعاد زندگی انسان به سرعت در حال گسترش است تا کارهای سخت و خطرناک را به جای انسان انجام دهند.
برای مثال امروزه برای بررسی وضعیت داخلی رآکتورها از روبات استفاده می شود تا تشعشعات رادیواکتیو به انسانها صدمه نزند.
- سال 1956 م: پس از توسعه فعالیتهای تکنولوژی یک که بعد از جنگ جهانی دوم، یک ملاقات تاریخی بین جورج سی.دوول(George C.Devol) مخترع و کارآفرین صاحب نام، و ژوزف اف.انگلبرگر (Joseph F.Engelberger) که یک مهندس با سابقه بود، صورت گرفت. در این ملاقات آنها به بحث در مورد داستان آسیموف پرداختند. ایشان سپس به موفقیتهای اساسی در تولید روباتها دست یافتند و با تأسیس شرکتهای تجاری، به تولید روبات مشغول شدند. انگلبرگر شرکت Unimate برگرفته از Universal Automation را برای تولید روبات پایه گذاری کرد. نخستین روباتهای این شرکت در کارخانه جنرال موتورز (General Motors) برای انجام کارهای دشوار در خودروسازی به کار گرفته شد. انگلبرگر را "پدر روباتیک" نامیده اند.
- دهه 1960 م: روباتهای صنعتی زیادی ساخته شدند. انجمن صنایع روباتیک این تعریف را برای روبات صنعتی ارائه کرد:
"روبات صنعتی یک وسیلة چند کاره و با قابلیت برنامه ریزی چند باره است که برای جابجایی قطعات، مواد، ابزارها یا وسایل خاص بوسیلة حرکات برنامه ریزی شده، برای انجام کارهای متنوع استفاده می شود."
- سال 1962 م: شرکت خودروسازی جنرال موتورز نخستین روبات Unimate را در خط مونتاژ خود به کار گرفت.
- سال 1967 م: رالف موزر (Ralph Moser) از شرکت جنرال الکتریک (General Electeric) نخستین روبات چهارپا را اختراع کرد.
- سال 1983 م: شرکت Odetics یک روبات شش پا ارائه کرد که می توانست از موانع عبور کند و بارهای سنگینی را نیز با خود حمل کند.
- سال 1985 م: نخستین روباتی که به تنهایی توانایی راه رفتن داشت در دانشگاه ایالتی اهایو (Ohio State Uneversity) ساخته شد.
سال 1996 م: شرکت ژاپنی هندا (Honda) نخستین روبات انسان نما را ارائه کرد که با دو دست و دو پا طوری طراحی شده بود که می توانست راه برود، از پله بالا برود، روی صندلی بنشیند و بلند شود و بارهایی به وزن 5 کیلوگرم را حمل کند
روباتها روز به روز هوشمندتر می شوند تا هرچه بیشتر در کارهای سخت و پر خطر به یاری انسانها بیایند.
قانون روباتیک مطرح شده توسط آسیموف:
.1- روبات ها نباید هیچگاه به انسانها صدمه بزنند.
.2- روباتهاباید دستورات انسانها را بدون سرپیجی از قانون اوّل اجرا کنند.
.3- روباتها باید بدون نقض قانون اوّل و دوم از خود محافظت کنند.
مزایای روباتها:
.1- روباتیک و اتوماسیون در بسیاری از موارد می توانند ایمنی، میزان تولید، بهره و کیفیت محصولات را افزایش دهند.
.2- روباتها می توانند در موقعیت های خطرناک کار کنند و با این کار جان هزاران انسان را نجات دهند.
.3- روباتها به راحتی محیط اطراف خود توجه ندارند و نیازهای انسانی برای آنها مفهومی ندارد. روباتها هیچگاه خسته نمی شوند.
.4- دقت روباتها خیلی بیشتر از انسانها است آنها در حد میلی یا حتی میکرو اینچ دقت دارند.
.5- روباتها می توانند در یک لحظه چند کار را با هم انجام دهند ولی انسانها در یک لحظه تنها یک کار انجام می دهند.
معایب روباتها:
.1- روباتها در موقعیتهای اضطراری توانایی پاسخگویی مناسب ندارند که این مطلب می تواند بسیار خطرناک باشد
.2- روباتها هزینه بر هستند.
.3- قابلیت های محدود دارند یعنی فقط کاری که برای آن ساخته شده اند را انجام می دهند
سونوگرافي (Ultrasound) چيست؟
منبع : دانشنامه رشد
به نقل از هوپا
فيبر نوري يك محيط انتقال داده با سرعت بالا است كه معمولا براي اتصال بين شبكه هاي تلفن بين شهري و شهري و شبكه هاي كامپيوتري و غيره استفاده ميشود .
كابلهاي فيبر نوري بدليل خالصي و نبود افت سيگنال داراي سرعت و ظرفيت تبادل داده بسيار زيادي است.
اجزاي تشكيل دهنده يك فيبر نوري:
1- core يا هسته: يك رشته نازك شيشه كه در مركز فيبر است و سيگنال در داخل آن حركت ميكند.
2- Cladding يا روكش: لايه شيشه اي ديگري بوده كه با هسته متحدالمركز است ولي ضريب شكست نور در آن متفاوت است و به عنوان روكش دور تا دور هسته را گرفته و باعث شكست نور ميشود.
3- Coating يا رويه: كه از جنس پلاستيك بوده و از فيبر در مقابل آسيب هاي احتمالي مانند رطوبت و تا حد كمي ضربه و احيانا شكستن هسته حفاظت ميكند.
نكته: توجه داشته باشيد كه فيبرهاي نوري نبايد كاملا خم شوند زيرا اين كار باعث شكستن و خرد شدن هسته مي شود و اين كار يعني از كار افتادن فيبر نوري.
يك فيبر نوري شامل هزاران سيلندر شيشه اي باريك (همان رشته هاي فيبر) است كه هر يك از كلافهاي فيبر نوري توسط يك روكش كه اصطلاحا به آن Jaket يا ژاكت گفته مي شود محافظت ميگردد.
گاهي اوقات فيبرها را از جنس پلاستيك نيز ساخته مي شوند. نصب نوع پلاستيكي ساده تر بوده ولي نمي تواند پالسهاي نور را در مسافتهاي خيلي طولاني مانند نوع شيشه اي حمل كنند.
هر كابل فيبر نوري شامل دو رشته كابل مجزا است. دليل اين امر آن است كه هر رشته شيشه يا فيبر سيگنالها را فقط در يك سمت مي تواند حمل كند. به همين دليل يك كابل براي ارسال data و يك كابل نيز براي دريافت data در نظر گرفته شده است.
يكي از نكات قابل توجه ديگر در فيبرهاي نوري، نبود خطر تداخل الكتريكي است. در كابلهاي مسي اگر آنها را از نزديك ژنراتورهاي برق، كابلهاي فشار قوي، و يا هر ميدان الكتركي بزرگي عبور دهيم، باعث افتادن نويز روي كابل شبكه و اختلال در ارسال و دريافت داده ها مي شود. اما در فيبر نوري ديگر اين اشكال وجود ندارد زيرا هيچ سيگنال الكتريكي در داخل كابل رد و بدل نشده و ميدانهاي الكتريكي نيز روي نور هيچ تاثيري ندارند.
فيبرهاي نوري در دو گروه دسته بندي مي شوند:
1- Single mode يا تك حالته: در اين نوع فيبرها در هر لحظه يك سيگنال يا پالس نوري در آن عبور داده ميشود كه نور به صورت مستقيم از داخل آن رد ميشود.
2- Multi mode يا چند حالته: در اين نوع فيبرها در هر لحظه
(نوع اول براي مصارف مخابراتي و نوع دوم براي مصارف شبكه هاي كامپيوتري است.)
زماني كه نور درون هسته تابيده مي شود، پوشش روي هسته كه Cladding نام داشت باعث انعكاس نور در طول مسير به داخل هسته ميشود. (دو ديوار آينه كاري شده را در نظر بگيريد كه روي يكي از آنها نور يك ليزر تابيده شود. خواهيد ديد كه نور ليزر چگونه طول مسير را طي كرده و خارج مي شود.) در برخي از فيبرهاي ارزان قيمت بدليل وجود نا خالصي در شيشه ممكن است در طول مسير دچار تضعيف پالسهاي نور شويم. در اين حالت نوعي تقويت كننده براي فيبرهاي نوري در نظر گرفته شده كه مانند يك آمپلي فاير عمل كرده و سيگنالها را regenerate ميكند. با اين تفاوت كه به جاي سيگنالهاي الكتريكي پالسهاي نور را بازسازي و تقويت مي كند.
سيستم رله:
اين سيستم از عناصر زير تشكيل شده است'
· فرستنده: مسئول توليد، رمز نگاري و ارسال سيگنالهاي نور است. در اين قسمت سيگنالهاي الكتريكي به پالسهاي نور تبديل مي شوند. در اين سيستم براي تاباندن نور به داخل فيبر از يك LED استفاده ميشود. در برخي از فرستنده هاي گران قيمت به منظور تمركز نور در داخل فيبر و توان بالاتر از يك لنز استفاده ميشود.
· فيبر نوري: محيط انتقال داده ها است كه است كه داده هايي كه به صورت پالسهاي نوري در آمده اند تا مسافتهاي طولاني حمل مي كند.
· دريافت كننده: مسئول دريافت و رمز گشايي پالسهاي نوري است. اين دستگاه پس از دريافت و رمز گشايي پالسها آنها را به صورت سيگنالهاي الكتريكي تبديل ميكند تا براي كامپيوت قابل درك باشد. در اين دستگاه ه منظور تشخيص نور از يك فتوسل استفاده شده است.
مزاياي فيبر نوري:
· در مسافتهاي بالا هزينه آن نسبت به سيمهاي مسي ارزانتر است.
· پهناي باند فيبر نوري براي ارسال اطلاعات بسيار بيشتر از سيم هاي مسي است.
· تضعيف سيگنال در فيبرهاي نوري نسبت به سيمهاي مسي بسيار نا چيز است.
· سيگنالهاي موجود در يك فيبر بر فيبر ديگر تاثير نخواهد گذاشت. همچنين ميدانهاي الكتريكي هيچ تاثيري بر روي فيبر و روند انتقال داده ها در يك فيبر نوري ندارد.
· ميزان برق مصرفي فرستنده هاي فيبر نوري نسبت به فرستنده هاي الكتريكي بسيار پايين تر است.
· وزن آن نسبت به سيمهاي مسي بسيار كمتر است.
· و ....
معايب فيبر نوري:
· اين نوع رسانه براي شبكه هاي معمولي و كوچك بسيار پر هزينه است.
· نصب فيبر هاي نوري كاري دشوار است.
· براي نصب فيبرهاي نوري و تجهيزات آن به افراد متخصص نياز است. اما در نصب سيمهاي مسي تقرريبا اكثر افرادي كه آشنايي كمي در اين زمينه دارند ميتوانند آنها را نصب كنند.
· تجهيزات مود نياز براي فيبرهاي نوري نسبت به سيمهاي مسي بسيار گران تر است.
· براي نصب فيبر هاي نوري دقت بسيار زيادي مورد نياز است. حتي براي قطع كردن آن. زيرا در اين صورت زاويه شكست نور تغيير مي كند و روند انتقال داده ها دچار اختلال مي شود.
· يكي از اصلي ترين اشكالات فيبر هاي نوري شكننده بودن فيبر داخل كابل است. در صورت خم كردن بيش از اندازه سيم، فيبر مورد نظر شكسته و ديگر آن كابل به در د نمي خورد. در صورتي كه سيمهاي مسي را هر چقدر كه دوست داريد ميتوانيد تا كنيد.
802.11 refers to a family of specifications developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN technology. 802.11 specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
Like many standards, 802.11 has gone through many iterations and expansions over the years. Initially encompassing a 1 Mbps throughput on a 900 MHz channel, it now supports up to 54 Mbps in the 2400 MHz and 5600 MHz bands.
Internationally, there are 14 standard channels, which are spaced at 5 MHz intervals, from 2.4000 to 2.487 GHz. Only channels 1 through 11 are legal in the U.S.A. The 802.11 channel is 22 MHz wide, so it occupies multiple 5 MHz channels. Only channels 1, 6, and 11 can be assigned to an 802.11 network with no overlap among them. If closer spaced channels are assigned, there will be inter-carrier interference generated. Such overlapping systems can still work, but the interchannel interference will effectively raise the noise floor in the channel, which will have a negative impact on the throughput and range of the systems.
مهندسي برق و الكترونيك Electrical Engineering
مهندسيبرق، يكي از رشتههاي پركاربرد مهندسي است كه بازهي وسيعي از دانشكاربردي را دربردارد. حوزهي عمل اين رشته بسياروسيع است و در عصرجديد، كه عصر ارتباطات نامدارد، دركنار هر رشتهي ديگري ميتوان ردپايي از مهندسان برق يافت. اين رشته بيشتر با طراحي، ساخت و نگهداري مدارهاي الكتريكي كه خود طيفوسيعي از شبكههاي توليد و انتقال برق تا مدارهايي درحد نانومتر را دربرميگيرد، سروكار دارد.
زمينههاي كاري
برق قدرت؛
سيستمهاي توليد، انتقال و توزيع برق شهري و صنعتي؛
ارتباطات، مخابرات؛
الكترونيك؛ طراحي، ساخت و نگهداري مدارها؛
سيستمهاي هدايت و كنترل؛
پردازش علايم الكتريكي؛
ميكروالكتريك، نانوتكنولوژي؛
ربات، پردازشگرهاي خاص صدا و تصوير؛
مهندسي كامپيوتر(سختافزار)، مهندسي پلاسما.
استخدام كنندگان
براي طراحي، توسعه، ساخت و نگهداري مدارها و دستگاههاي الكتريكي در همهجا؛
هوانوردي، هوافضا؛
سيستمهاي هدايت: دريانوردي، حملونقل جادهاي و ريلي؛
اتوماسيون، رباتيك، رايانه؛
ماشينهاي توليدي؛
ابزارهاي حرفهاي و رفاهي؛
ساختمان؛ روشنايي، آكوستيك؛
صنايع دفاعي-نظامي؛
وسايل و تجهيزات الكتريكي، الكترونيكي؛
محيطزيست؛ صنايعغذايي و بهداشتي؛
خدمات عمومي؛
دولت در بخشهاي: نيروهاي نظامي، بهداشت و درمان، هوافضا، استاندارد، صنايع؛
و صنايع: شيشه و سراميك، نفت و پتروشيمي، معدن و متالوژي، هستهاي، پزشكي، دريانگاري و اقيانوسشناسي، كاغذ و پلاستيك، نساجي، آب و فاضلاب.
خصوصیات یک مهندس برق و الکترونیک خوب
دقيق باشد، رياضيات بسيارقوي و توان محاسباتي بالا داشتهباشد، در رياضياتجديد بهخصوص فضاهاي برداري متبحرباشد.
بتواند بهعنوان عضوي از گروههاي مهندسي دركنار متخصصين سايررشتهها كاركند؛
مهارت در نوشتن، ارتباطات قوي و بيان قوي داشتهباشد؛
توان و ظرفيت بالايي براي درخاطرداشتن جزييات هرچيزي داشتهباشد؛
اهل مطالعه و تحقيق باشد، خودرا بهروز نگاهدارد؛
بهخوبي با استانداردهاي ملي و جهاني ايمني آشناباشد؛
مداركشغلي و مدارج لازم علمي را كسبكند
آمپر متر چيست؟
ريشه لغوي
لغت ammeter از كلمه amper مشتق شده است. توجه كنيد كه حرف P در كلمه amper حذف شده است و فقط دو حرف اول اين كلمه در لغت ammeter بكار رفته است.
ما نميتوانيم الكترونها يا پروتونها را ديده يا لمس كنيم. به همين دليل نميتوانيم آنها را بشماريم. در نتيجه به ابزاري احتياج داريم تا بتوانيم آنها را بشماريم. شدت روشنايي لامپ مشخصاتي از شدت جريان را به ما نشان ميدهد، ولي دو نقص اصلي دارد. اول اينكه نميتواند شدت جريان را در واحدي كه به آساني قابل يادداشت و مقايسه با اندازه گيري شدت جريان در محلها و زمانهاي ديگر است، اندازه بگيرد. همچنين در شدت جريانهاي معين ميتوان از آن استفاده كرد. اگر مقدار شدت جريان خيلي كم باشد، لامپ روشن نميشود و اگر شدت جريان خيلي زياد باشد، لامپ ميسوزد. براي رفع نقص اول به ابزاري احتياج داريم كه به ما نشان دهد، چند آمپر (چند كولن الكترون در هر ثانيه) در مدار جريان دارد. دستگاه مخصوصي كه اين اندازه گيري را انجام ميدهد، آمپرمتر (ammetr) ناميده ميشود.
طرز كار آمپرمتر
آمپرمتر مقدار شدت جرياني را كه از آن ميگذرد، بوسيله يك عقربه كه در روي صفحه درجه بندي شده حركت ميكند، نشان ميدهد. ميزان انحراف عقربه آمپرمتر با تعداد الكترونهايي كه از اين دستگاه ميگذرند، نسبت مستقيم دارد. يعني نشان ميدهد كه چه مقدار بار الكتريكي در ثانيه از آن عبور ميكند.
طرز استفاده از آمپرمتر
آمپرمتر از خيلي جهات شبيه كنتور آب است كه ميزان آب مصرف شده منازل را اندازه ميگيرد. هر دو دستگاه (آمپرمتر و كنتور آب) بايد طوري در مدار قرار گيرند كه جريانهاي الكتريسيته و آب از آنها بگذرد، تا بتوان شدت جريان را اندازه گرفت. تمام آبي كه از لوله اصلي وارد خانه ميشود، بايد از كنتور آب عبور كند. آمپرمتر نيز بايد طوري قرار گيرد كه تمام جريان الكتريسته از ان بگذرد، تا بتوان تمام شدت جريان الكتريكي را بوسيله آن اندازه گرفت. اين نوع اتصال را اتصال متوالي يا سري ميگويند. يعني اجزا تشكيل دهنده مدار در يك خط مستقيم (يك مسير هدايت كننده) به يكديگر اتصال دارند.
مراحل قرار دادن آمپرمتر در مدار
براي قرار دادن آمپرمتر در مدار متوالي به ترتيب زير عمل كنيد.
1. نيروي خارجي را كه به مدار وارد ميشود، قطع كنيد.
2. آن قسمت از مدار را كه آمپرمتر در آن قرار دارد، باز كنيد يا ببريد.
3. انتهاي مثبت آمپرمتر را به سيمي كه به قطب مثبت پيل ميرود، وصل كنيد.
4. انتهاي منفي آمپرمتر را به سيمي كه به قطب منفي پيل ميرود، وصل كنيد.
مراحل 4 , 3 (كه عبارتند از انتقال مثبت به مثبت ، منفي به منفي) را دقت در پلاريته مينامند و اين امر مهم است. زيرا دستگاه اندازه گيري آمپرمتر شدت جريان را در يك جهت نشان ميدهد. اگر دستگاه اندازه گيري را بطور عكس در مدار قرار دهيم، چون جريان در جهت عكس (كه مناسب آمپرمتر نيست) از آن ميگذرد و انحراف عقربه بوجود ميآيد كه باعث شكسته شدن يا خم شدن آن ميگردد. فيش قرمز را به جك قرمز آمپرمتر و فيش سياه را به جك سياه در بالاي آمپرمتر وصل كنيد.
خطاي دستگاه اندازه گيري (Meter Tolrances)
بايد توجه داشت كه در يك مدار معين آمپرمترهاي مختلف ، اندازه شدت جريان را با كمي اختلاف نشان ميدهند. اين امر بدان دليل است كه مقداري از انرژي كه در مدار جريان دارد، براي بكار انداختن آمپرمتر مصرف ميشود و همه آمپرمترها هم يكسان نيستند. همچنين به علت اختلافي كه در ساختمان آمپرمتر و تلف شدن انرژي وجود دارد، شدت جرياني را كه در روي آمپرمتر ميخوانيد، تقريبي است. دستگاه اندازه گيري درست است كه حدود خطاي آن 0± در صد اندازه واقعي باشد. يعني اگر شدت جريان اصلي 100 آمپر باشد، روي دستگاه آمپرمتر حدود 9 تا 10 آمپر را ميخوانيد.
بكار بردن آمپرمتر
1. يك آمپرمتر ساده را برداريد. در انتخاب دستگاه اندازه گيري دقت كنيد كه شدت جريان مدار نبايد بيش از حد تعيين شده براي اندازه گيري باشد. زيرا آمپرمتر بر حسب درجه بندي خود ، شدت جريانهاي معيني را ميتواند اندازه بگيرد. در مورد اين آزمايش ميتوانيد فرض كنيد كه آمپرمتر داراي توانايي كافي براي اندازه گيري شدت جريان ميباشد.
2. فيش قرمز را به جك قرمز و فيش سياه را به جك سياه وصل كنيد.
3. مطمئن شويد كه به مدار انرژي داده نميشود. كليد مدار بايد باز باشد (به خاطر حفظ جان خود هيچگاه سعي نكنيد كه آمپرمتر را در مداري كه انرژي الكتريكي در آن جريان دارد قرار دهيد).
4. با جدا كردن سيم رابط بين T2 و T1 مدار را باز كنيد. با قرار گرفتن آمپرمتر بين اين دو نقطه مدار كامل ميشود.
5. با رعايت پلاريته ، فيش سياه را به T1 و فيش قرمز را به T2 وصل كنيد. اگر پلاريته مناسب در نظر گرفته نشود، عقربه آمپرمتر به طرف چپ منحرف شده و اين عمل موجب خرابي دستگاه اندازه گيري خواهد شد.
6. كليد مدار را ببنديد و درجهاي را كه آمپرمتر نشان ميدهد بخوانيد. هميشه از روبرو به صفحه درجه بندي شده آمپرمتر نگاه كنيد و هيچوقت تحت هيچ زاويهاي درجه آمپرمتر را نخوانيد.
7. درجهاي را كه خواندهايد، يادداشت كنيد.
8. كليد مدار را باز كنيد.منبع : دانشنامه رشد
به نقل از هوپا
Wireless Advantages
Wireless networks offer several advantages over fixed (or "wired") networks:
Mobility:
Users move, but data is usually stored centrally. Enabling users to access data while they are in motion can lead to large productivity gains
.Ease and speed of deployment:
Many areas are difficult to wire for traditional wired LANs. Older buildings are often a problem; running cable through the walls of an older stone building to which the blueprints have been lost can be a challenge. In many places, historic preservation laws make it difficult to carry out new LAN installations in older buildings. Even in modern facilities, contracting for cable installation can be expensive and time-consuming.
Flexibility:
No cables means no recabling. Wireless networks allow users to quickly form amorphous, small group networks for a meeting, and wireless networking makes moving between cubicles and offices a snap. Expansion with wireless networks is easy because the network medium is already everywhere. There are no cables to pull, connect, or trip over. Flexibility is the big selling point for the "hot spot" market, composed mainly of hotels, airports, train stations, libraries, and cafes.
Cost:
In some cases, costs can be reduced by using wireless technology. As an example, 802.11-equipment can be used to create a wireless bridge between two buildings. Setting up a wireless bridge requires some initial capital cost in terms of outdoor equipment, access points, and wireless interfaces. After the initial capital expenditure, however, an 802.11-based, line-of-sight network will have only a negligible recurring monthly operating cost. Over time, point-to-point wireless links are far cheaper than leasing capacity from the telephone company.
Information transfer
Two types of information can be transferred over the GPIB bus: commands and data. When both the controller drives Attention (ATN) and Data Valid (DAV) low, the byte value on DIOL-D108 represents a command to one or more devices. Such commands enable remote operation of devices on the GPIB and assign them to be talkers or listeners, and so on.
When ATN is high and DAV is low, the byte value on the data bus is data. Hence, ATN is a switch that identifies whether the data bus value is a command or data; DAV low means what its name says-the data on DIO1-DIO8 is valid for all listeners to read.
All bus transfers-both controller commands and talker-listener data transfers- take place using Hewlett-Packard's patented three-wire handshake. All devices must handshake when commands (ATN low) are being sent, but only listeners handshake for data transmission. This allows high-speed transmission between two fast devices even when there are much slower devices present on the same bus. The figure below presents a timing diagram for a command followed by a 1-byte data transfer, showing how the handshake signals work.
To better understand how the handshake operates, here is the sequence of events that occurs when the controller sends a command to the devices on the bus:
Before putting a new command on the bus, the controller checks to see if the Not Ready For Data (NRFD) line is high. Any device that's not ready to accept another data byte holds NRFD low. Thus, thanks to the open-collector connection of the NRFD line, it can go high only when all devices are ready to accept a new command byte.
The controller sets ATN low to indicate a command is being sent, places the command code on the data lines, and, after a delay to allow the DIO lines to settle, pulls DAV low to indicate that a valid command is present on DIO1-D108.
When each device sees DAV go low, the device pulls its NRFD line low to indicate that it knows a new byte is present, but that it hasn't yet received and stored it.
Once each device has stored the command byte, it releases the No Data Accepted (NDAC) line to indicate that it's accepted the byte. When the slowest device has released NDAC, this open-collector line will finally go high.
The controller now knows that all devices have accepted the command, so it sets DAV high and removes the command byte from the data lines.
On seeing DAV go high, each device sets its NDAC line low again so that it's in the proper state for the next data transfer.
When it's handled the command just received and is ready to receive the next byte, each device releases its NRFD line. As a result, NRFD will finally go high when the slowest device is ready.
The same sequence of events occurs when a talker sends data to one or more listeners. The only difference is that for a data transfer the ATN line is high, and only those devices that are currently configured to be listeners participate in the handshake. Non-listeners do not drive the NRFD and NDAC lines.
You may be wondering why such a complex handshake is used here. The answer is that in nearly all other bus systems such as ISA or SCSI, data is sent from a single source to a single receiver. In a GPIB system, however, there can be more than one listener and the three-wire system prevents multiple acceptance of data by a fast listener while a slow one is still busy accepting the data.
When messages (either commands or data) are sent from one GPIB device to another, the programmer doesn't need to worry about the details of the handshake. GPIB interfaces in instruments and GPIB controller cards for PCs use sophisticated ASICs (application specific integrated circuits) that constitute a complete (or nearly so) GPIB interface on a chip.
The 802.11 family standards
The first wireless standard to be defined in the 802 family was 802.11. It was approved by the IEEE in 1997, and defines three possible physical layers: FHSS at 2.4GHz, DSSS at 2.4GHz, and Infrared.
802.11 could achieve data rates of 1 or 2Mbps. 802.11 radios that use DSSS are interoperable with 802.11b and 802.11g radios at those speeds, while FHSS radios and Infrared are obviously not.
The IEEE has a number of working groups responsible for developing open standards. These open standards are available for any manufacturer to use, hopefully ensuring competition and volume production. The IEEE has developed the 802.11x and 802.16 standards, and as of July 2003 has a working group developing the 802.20 standard.
Each of these standards is designed with a certain utility and limitations in mind. For example 802.11b was designed as a short-range wireless Ethernet replacement. While it can be used for other applications (such as community networks) it is not optimized for this type of service, and will never perform as well as a technology that was designed from the ground up to address the unique issues found in a community network.
802.11x, also sometimes known as Wi-Fi, is an IEEE certified wireless networking standard that currently includes the IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g specifications. In the U.S., the RF emission of these devices is governed by FCC Part 15 rules. These rules govern the power output, equipment and antenna configurations useable in the unlicensed bands.
802.11x is an extension of wired Ethernet, bringing Ethernet-like principles to wireless communication. As such, 802.11 is agnostic about the kinds of data that pass over it. It’s primarily used for TCP/IP, but can also handle other forms of networking traffic, such as AppleTalk or NetBEUI
Bluetooth communications
Bluetooth communications are Secure
One goal for Bluetooth wireless communication is to enable security at least as good as that provided by typical cables because a primary application of Bluetooth technology is cable replacement. Toward that end, the SIG has specified several security measures that may be employed in various situations, and the Bluetooth profiles suggest when these security measures might be or should be employed in certain usage scenarios.
Specifically, Bluetooth communications can be encrypted over the air—interface and authentication measures are built in to the communications establishment process. The frequency-hopping nature of Bluetooth spread spectrum communication itself offers a degree of protection against eavesdropping because only receivers that know the frequency-hopping pattern can correctly interpret the packets. Some of the higher layers of the protocol stack also include their own security measures, and application developers are free to incorporate even more robust security at the application layer, if deemed necessary. Security is rightly a concern of many device end users, especially in the wireless realm, and the SIG recognizes this and has developed a specification and a white paper (both available at http://www.bluetooth.com/) that address security at some length.
An overview
IntroductionIt is estimated that there are 500 million telephone lines enmeshing our planet. Obviously communication
systems designers ignore it at their own risk. It remains the prime vehicle for any new communication system
that wants to reach out globally. Digital subscriber technology (DSL) grew out of a need to get
all that ispossible
from the humble telephone line, and switching equipment, snidely referred to by web-agetechnologists as POTS (plain old telephone services)
If Shannon is to be believed the 56K modem has brought us to the
end of the line of the telephone linemodem. However, breaking rules remains an enjoyable activity and communication engineers are no
exception. The
breakthrough of the DSL modems came about not out of any violation of Shannon’s channelcapacity theorem, but out of a realisation that the ubiquitous telephone line has a bandwidth of nearly 1 MHz.
This is a huge expansion in available bandwidth in comparison to the 4 KHz voice bandwidth utilised by the
voice band modems. Of course, this also meant that the exchange makers should handle the tsunami of
multi-mega bit data rates instead of the gentle streams of 56K that they were used to. Once this was
accepted, DSL’s future was secured.
So what can DSL do ? In plain terms, you can connect to the internet at rates of 8 Mbps or more, while you
can use your telephone simultaneously. It is ‘personal broadband’ at your disposal, over the old faithful
telephone line. Also, it is often ‘biased’ in your favour ie; you have a bigger bandwidth (and hence better bit
rate) to download (the “downstream” direction) than the telephone exchange has for you to upload
(“upstream” direction)
To go back a bit in time, the digitisation of the subscriber line started with ISDN. It offered bit rates upto 144
Kbps. This took real voice off the line, digitising and making it just another of the bitstreams commuting over
the line. Next was HDSL (High data rate DSL) which endeavoured to replace the T1/E1 lines with twisted
pairs. Bit rates upto 2 Mbps was possible. Ignoring a plethora of other interim DSL technologies, we come to
the dominant DSL technology of today - ADSL (Asymmetric DSL). Initially conceived as a video-on-demand
system, it evolved into a method that delivers 8 Mbps downstream, and 640 Kbps upstream, and can coexist
with existing POTS facilities. The DSL technology of the future is VDSL (Very high data rate DSL) which can
squeeze through an incredible 52 Mbps over twisted pairs - admittedly over much shorter distances than
DSLs.
How it works
Currently accepted ADSL standards use discrete multitone (DMT) modulation scheme to transmit data.
‘Multi-tone’ means that there are many carriers (usually 256), each of which individually undergoes QAM
(quadrature amplitude modulation). This means that there are sine and cosine versions of the carrier wave at
each carrier frequency, whose amplitudes are determined by the modulating bit pattern. The signal on the
line is thus a sum of a number of QAM modulated sine waves. In contrast, voice band modems transmit
data by modulating a single carrier , which is usually a 2.4 KHz sine wave. POTS compatibility is achieved by
keeping clear of the POTS band - 0 to 4 KHz, as well as by having an additional guard band - from 4 KHz to
30 Khz. The ADSL band extends from 30 KHz to around 1 MHz. This band is split into several ‘tones’, each
of which is modulated and occupies 4 KHz. Thus one could say that the DSL modem comprises of 256 ‘voice
modems’ all running in parallel. Approximately one-eighth of these bands are set apart for upstream data
transmission and the rest for downstream data. This bigger downstream bandwidth gives the ‘asymmetry’ to
ADSL. This goes well with web-based applications where the subscriber is more often downloading data off
the web, rather than sending data into the web.
Mesh Networks
Mesh networking is a way to route data, voice and instructions between nodes. It allows for continuous connections and reconfiguration around blocked paths by "hopping" from node to node until a connection can be established.
Mesh networks are self-healing: the network can still operate even when a node breaks down or a connection goes bad. As a result, a very reliable network is formed.
This type of Internet infrastructure is decentralised, inexpensive, and very reliable and resilient, as each node need only transmit as far as the next node. Nodes act as repeaters to transmit data from nearby nodes to peers that are too far away to reach, resulting in a network that can span large distances, especially over rough or difficult terrain.
Mesh networks are also extremely reliable, as each node is connected to several other nodes. If one node drops out of the network, due to hardware failure or any other reason, its neighbours simply find another route. Extra capacity can be installed by simply adding more nodes. Mesh networks may involve either fixed or mobile devices.
USB
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was designed from the ground up to be easy for end users, with no user configuring required in hardware or software. It is a fast and flexible interface for connecting devices to computers. The interface is versatile enough to use with standard peripherals as well as more specialized devices.
In January 1996 Release 1.0 of the USB specification followed several years of development and preliminary releases. Release 1.1 is dated September 1998 and fixed problems identified in release 1.0. USB Release 2.0 dated from April 2000 with a new high-speed option. An Engineering Change Notice in December 2000 provided corrections and defined a new mini-B connector.
Version 2.0 was a big step in USB's evolution. A 40-times increase was found to be feasible, for a bus speed of 480 Megabits per second making USB more attractive for peripherals such as printers, scanners, drives, and even video.
The copyright on the USB 2.0 specification is assigned jointly to seven corporations, all heavily involved with PC hardware or software:
Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, Lucent, Microsoft, NEC, and Philips. All have agreed to make the specification available without charge.
The USB Implementers Forum's website has the latest versions of all USB specifications and other information for both developers and end users.
Wireless communications
, together with its applications and underlying technologies, is among today's most active areas of technology development. The very rapid pace of improvements in both custom and programmable integrated circuits for signal processing applications has led to the justifiable view of advanced signal processing as a key enabler of the aggressively escalating capacity demands of emerging wireless systems.The term wireless networking refers to technology that enables two or more computers to communicate using standard network protocols, but without network cabling. Strictly speaking, any technology that does this could be called wireless networking. The current buzzword however generally refers to wireless LANs. This technology, fuelled by the emergence of cross-vendor industry standards such as IEEE 802.11, has produced a number of affordable wireless solutions that are growing in popularity with business and schools as well as sophisticated applications where network wiring is impossible, such as in warehousing or point-of-sale handheld equipment.
Wireless is certainly less expensive to install and support in most cases, especially in locations where it's cost prohibitive to install physical media or right-of-way issues persist.
We are on the cusp of a profound change in computer networking. Wireless telephony has been successful because it enables people to connect with each other regardless of location. New technologies targeted at computer networks promise to do the same for Internet connectivity
Bluetooth
Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range radio technology. Bluetooth wireless technology makes it possible to transmit signals over short distances between telephones, computers and other devices and thereby simplify communication and synchronization between devices.It is a global standard that:
eliminates wires and cables between both stationary and mobile devices
facilitates both data and voice communication
offers the possibility of ad hoc networks and delivers the ultimate synchronicity between all your personal devices The Bluetooth wireless technology comprises hardware, software and interoperability requirements.
Beyond unleashing devices by replacing cables, Bluetooth wireless technology provides a universal bridge to existing data networks, a peripheral interface, and a mechanism to form small private ad hoc groupings of connected devices away from fixed network infrastructures.
Bluetooth radio uses a fast acknowledgement and frequency-hopping scheme to make the link robust, even in noisy radio environments.
The Bluetooth technology was named after tenth-century Danish King Harald Blåtand, whose surname loosely translates to "blue tooth." King Harald was instrumental in uniting parts of Scandinavia, so some of the people originally involved with the technology thought that it would be neat to name it after him because Bluetooth technology is intended to unite devices, companies, and industries.
The Bluetooth technology, as described in the specification, was developed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). Ericsson is credited with the initial research and invention of the concepts that became Bluetooth technology. The SIG today consists of more than 2,000 member organizations. The core, or "promoter" group, in the SIG is composed of 3Com®, Ericsson®, Intel®, IBM, Lucent®, Microsoft®, Motorola®, Nokia,® and Toshiba®.
Because Bluetooth is developed and maintained by a special interest group, there is no Bluetooth corporate entity and thus no "Bluetooth headquarters." The SIG is a group bound by legal agreements, but not a company unto itself.